The Ecumenical Councils - where do I fit in?

Staff Writer

 

Table of Contents

The description of how I fit in within the Ecumenical Councils will be examined as follows:

·       The Major Councils of the Church and me.

·       How does this affect my life as a Christian, Muslim, Jew, or a person in Europe and the whole wide world?

·       How do decisions made centuries ago still form my behaviour and response to my actions today?

First Council – The First Council of Nicaea (325)

·       Held in a city located south of Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great with Pope St Sylvester I. In the list of attendance were Arius and St Athanasius.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The definition of the Consubstantiality of the Son with the Father (that is, the Son is equal to the Father, which is the theological basis of the nature of the Trinity).

·       The condemnation of Arian heresy (they argued that the Son of God was begotten within time by God the Father and that he did not always exist.)

The very first Council dealt with the ‘equality’ of the Son with the Father. Can we see this same equality flowing down: equality between man and woman, equality in sexes, races, employments, rights, religions, and so on?

Second Council – The First Council of Constantinople (381)

·       Held in Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor of the East, Theodosius I. In attendance were 186 bishops, such as Gregory Nazianzen, and Cyril of Jerusalem. Pope Saint Damasus, the first did not attend his legates because of a misunderstanding he had with the Roman Emperor living in Constantinople.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       Reaffirmation of the First Council of Nicaea

·       Redefinition of the Consubstantiality of the Holy Spirit with the Father and the Son.

·       By this, the Council Fathers condemned the heresy of Macedonius (or Pneumatomachian heresy – that the Holy Spirit was created by the Son and therefore should be subordinate to the Father and the Son).

The Council insisted on the equality of the Holy Spirit with the Son and the Father. An expansion that led to the doctrine of the Trinity (three equal persons, not three Gods but One God). In later centuries, we will see Muhammed arguing against this teaching with his basic tenet: ‘There’s no god but God and Muhammed is the prophet of God.’

Third Council – The Council of Ephesus (431)

·       Held in a city at the southern end of Asia Minor

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor Theodosius II (son of Theodosius I and brother of Saint Pulcheria). In attendance were Pope Saint Celestine I, over 200 bishops, as well as Cyril of Alexandria.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The declaration of the Blessed Virgin Mary as the Mother of God.

·       The definition that Jesus Christ has two natures: Divine and Human.

·       By this, the Council condemned the heresy of Nestorius and Nestorianism (that Christ is made up of two distinct persons -human and divine Logos, and not a unified person) and was removed as bishop of Constantinople.

·       The affirmation of the Council of Carthage’s rulings of 416, therefore condemning Pelagius and his teachings.

We all have an idea of the concept of a ‘queen mother’ (a dowager and mother of a reigning monarch). If a dowager is a lady who holds a title derived from her late husband, then, in human terms, the Blessed Virgin Mary can be said to be Mother of God, a title derived from her Son, who is God. A Son who is both Man and God.

Fourth Council – The Council of Chalcedon (451)

·       Held in a city in Thessalonica – northwest of Constantinople.

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor of the East, Marcian (husband to Saint Pulcheria) in alliance with Pope Saint Leo the Great. 

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       To root out false teachings brewing in the church, such as Monophysitism (teaching suggesting that Jesus Christ had only one nature). Abbot Eutyches had argued that Jesus Christ had only one nature and that Constantinople and Rome should be on an equal basis ecclesiastically.

·       The resolution of the Council: Pope Leo declared in 451 in his Dogmatic writing that the See of Peter in Rome is and will always be the only Seat of Primacy and there will be no comparison.

·       By this, the Council condemned Eutyches heresy and declared him a heretic.

Once again, the issue of equality popped up in the Church: between Rome and Constantinople. The Council resolved that Rome and only Rome is and will be the Seat of Peter. It makes sense to have one head, however, it ridicules the concept of equality as held in Nicaea.

Fifth Council – The Second Council of Constantinople (553)

·       Held in Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor in Constantinople, Justinian I. 

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       Some false teachings continue to plague the church, especially the false teachings perpetuated by the followers of Nestorius (especially, the denial of the hypostatic union of Christ and insisted that Christ consisted of two distinct persons, that is human and divine Logic).

·       The Council condemned the ‘Three Chapters’ of the writings of the disciples of Nestorius, namely: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of Edessa.

·       By this, the Council affirmed the condemnations pronounced by Popes of heresies that were already condemned at the Council of Carthage.

Hypostasis is considered as the underlying substance or reality rather than the attributes. For example, Peter is a man. That is the underlying reality. However, Peter becomes a father because he has a son. This becomes an attribute, that he is a father. Nestorianism denied the single person of Christ but held on to the attributes, that is, his two natures – human and divine Logic.

Sixth Council – The Third Council of Constantinople (680-81)

·       Held in Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine IV in agreement with Pope Saint Agatho. In attendance were over 200 bishops, and Pope Saint Leo II carried on when Pope Agatho died during the Council.  

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       To discuss the spreading of Islam as a threat to the church and the heresy of Monothelitism (this argued that Jesus Christ had only one ‘will’ instead of two ‘wills’ and two operations based on his two natures: human and divine. It was noted that the Patriarch of Constantinople (Sergius) was spreading false teachings from the East, while Pope Honorius I did the same from Rome.

·       The Council condemned the Monothelite's heresy.

·       Besides due to the errors of previous popes in many matters, the Council asserted and declared that a Pope can make mistakes when not speaking from the Chair of Peter (ex-Cathedra).

By the 7th century, the Church considered the threat of Islam. When there is a threat, it means there are vulnerabilities to be exploited by the potential threat. Hence, the beginning of the Christian-Muslim conflicts.

Seventh Council – The Second Council of Nicaea (787)

·       Held in a city located south of Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by Empress Irene (widow of Emperor Leo IV and mother of Emperor Constantine IV)   

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       To deal with the heresy of Iconoclasm promoted by Emperor Leo III with his Eastern bishops. John Damascene defended the need for images in worship as a means of reverence. Already, Emperor Leo III had been condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Pope Gregory II, and Pope Gregory III. Of course, this was at the heart of the schism and hatred between the East and West.

The division between East and West, the division in the Church – the idea of using images in worship as a means of reverence. The East rejected it, but the West accepted it.

Eight Council – The Fourth Council of Constantinople (869-70)

·       Held in Constantinople in Asia Minor

·       Convened by Emperor Basil and Pope Hadrian II.     

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       To deal with the heresy of Photius. He clearly denounced priestly celibacy and challenged Pope Leo III to crown Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas day of 800. At the same time, he questioned the Filioque (and with the Spirit) of the Creed. This period also saw the growing threat of the Saracens.

·       Photius was condemned by the Council Fathers.

·       Latterly, about 200 years later, Michael Cerularius closed the Latin Churches in Constantinople and that marked the beginning of the Great Eastern Schism.

·       Michael Cerularius was excommunicated by Pope Leo IV in 1054.

The division in the Church came to a point where the Eastern Church closed the door to its neighbour, the Latin Church.

Ninth Council – The First Lateran Council (1123)

·       Held in Lateran Basilica in Rome

·       Convened by Pope Callistus II.    

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       Now the Great Eastern Schism was in place. The Council was called to deal with the issue of Lay Investiture, a controversy between ecclesial power and secular power.

·       The Council agreed to the Concordat of Worms already signed by Emperor Henry V and Pope Callistus II (that agreed to the fact that all elections of bishops and abbots should be the prerogatives of ecclesial authorities. However, only in Germany was the emperor required to approve such elections.

·       The Council declared that priests in the Latin rite must remain celibate.

The Church claimed the authority (a prerogative) to appoint and elect bishops and abbots instead of the emperors. Here is the imagined separation of powers between state and church.

Tenth Council – The Second Lateran Council (1139)

·       Held in Lateran Basilica in Rome

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       This period saw the growth of anti-popes. There was a growing Papal schism. Pope Innocent II nullified and voided all acts and decrees by the dead anti-pope known as Anicletus II. Bernard of Clairvaux expanded a crusade emphasizing the threat of the Crescent Moon of Islam.

·       The Council condemned the heresies of Peter Burys (who was against infant baptism, the building of churches and the veneration of the crosses, the doctrine of Transubstantiation and prayers for the dead), and Arnold of Brescia (called on the Church to reject property ownership).

·       The Council introduced the reforms suggested by Saint Bernard of Clairvaux

After all, the Church is made up of human beings: saints and sinners. Hence, the rise in the number of anti-popes became an issue within the Church. Many of their acts were condemned by the Council.

Eleventh Council – The Third Lateran Council (1179)

·       Held in Lateran Basilica in Rome

·       Convened by Pope Alexander III

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       This Council was called due to the damages done to the church by many anti-popes, such as Victor IV.

·       The Council condemned the heresies of Albigenses and Waldenses.

·       At this Council, rules were set for the election of a Roman Pontiff – one of them was that a two-thirds majority of cardinals voting would decide and the Sacred Conclave was elected as the voting body.

The democratic idea of electing a Pope to the office was set, however, the election must be by the cardinals while in Conclave.

Twelfth Council – The Fourth Lateran Council (1215)

·       Held in Lateran Basilica in Rome

·       Convened by Pope Innocent III. In attendance were about 500 prelates and Patriarchs of Jerusalem and Constantinople, and about a thousand abbots. Saint Dominic was also in attendance.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       In this Council Pope Innocent III gave various definitions and declarations, such as the principle of ex-cathedra and that ‘There is but one Universal Church and that outside the church, there is no salvation’. Papal powers were at their peak.

·       The Council defined the term ‘Transubstantiation’ and reformed the disciplines of ecclesiastical life, directing that Catholics should participate in the sacraments of Penance and Eucharist, at least once a year.

·       The Council condemned again the heresies of Albigensianism (teaching that marriage and the sacraments were not required) and Waldensianism (a belief and teaching that the lay could carry out the same duties as a priest when the priest in question was in mortal sin).

The Church made a very bold claim at this Council: ‘There’s but One Universal Church and there’s no salvation outside the Church.’ This claim begged the question: Was there a Catholic God different from an Islamic God, a Judaic God, and God as understood by different religions? Because every religion promises salvation to its adherents. Could salvation come from them?

Thirteenth Council – The First Council of Lyons (1245)

·       Held in Lyons – France

·       Convened by Pope Innocent IV (after freeing Rome and taking refuge in France. On invitation by King Saint Louis IX of France). In attendance were about 140 bishops and had the blessings of Patriarchs of Antioch, Constantinople, Venice, and the Emperor of the East.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council reaffirmed the ex-communication of Frederick II by Pope Gregory IX. Frederick betrayed the trust bestowed on him.

·       The Council examined the consequences of the Mongols taking over Europe and the loss of Jerusalem to the Muslims.

·       The Council also investigated the issues regarding lax clergy.

The Church had always seen the Universal Church from the European lens. It could be argued that European values developed from Christian culture and values. One could make this assumption that, if the Jews were (are) God’s Chosen People, the Europeans (based on the number of times in different centuries the Church tried to protect it) are Christ’s Chosen People.

Fourteenth Council – The Second Council of Lyons (1274)

·       Held in Lyons – France

·       Convened by Pope Blessed Pope Gregory X. In attendance were 15 cardinals, 500 prelates, over a thousand clerics and V.I.Ps, Saint Bonaventure, and Saint Thomas Aquinas who passed on his journey to the Council.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       In this Council, an attempt was made to reunite the Latin and Eastern Churches. However, the concept of Filioque (that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son) dealt the schism a bigger blow.

·       The Council discussed how to retrieve Palestine from the Turks.

·       The Council also reassessed the guidelines for the Papal election.

Having concerns for the peace and sovereignty of Palestine, the Church sought ways to free Palestine from the Turks. Here, we can imagine the influence of the Church in the Medieval world.

Fifteenth Council – Council of Vienne (1311)

·       Held in City of Vienne – South of Lyons (Period of ‘Avignon Exile’ 1303-1377)

·       Convened by the first of the Avignon Pope, Pope Clement V. In attendance were the Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, fewer bishops, and V.I.Ps. 

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council was concerned with the misdeeds and abuse of privileges after the Crusades of Knights Templars as well as the undertakings of Jacques de Molay, who planted the satanic seeds of Freemasonry. The Council suppressed them.

·       The Council readmitted King Philip IV, ruler of France back to the fold after being excommunicated by Pope Boniface VIII (with his Unam Sanctam).

·       The Council also condemned many other heresies.

Sixteenth Council – Council of Constance (1414-18)

·       Held in the City of Constance – French area of Switzerland

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council was called because of the Great Western Schism. There were many Popes (including the anti-popes of Avignon – Benedict XIII and John XXIII) taking different stands and seats. As such, at the request of Emperor Sigismund and for the sake of unity, the legitimate Pope Gregory XII abdicated the Papal throne.

·       John XXIII called a Council in Pisa in 1403 but it was illegal and thus was not recognized.

·       The Council unanimously elected a new Pope, Martin V to sit on Peter’s throne. With this, the Great Western Schism ended. But it started the struggle between Papal power and conciliar power.

·       At this Council, the heresies of John Wycliffe (rejection of veneration of saints, the sacraments, requiem Masses, Transubstantiation, monastic life, and the existence of the Papacy) and John Hus (opposed the Churches views on Ecclesiology, the Eucharist and Simony) were condemned.

An attempt by the Council to muffle up freedom of beliefs and speech, hence those who refused to recant were considered heresiarchs. Some left the Church; some were killed, such as John Hus.

Seventeenth Council – Council of Florence (1431-45) But started in Basel, Switzerland

·       Held in the City of Florence – Italy

·       Convened by Pope Martin V, who died before the Council ever began. Blessed Pope Eugen IV opened the Council but was met with several oppositions. He dissolved it and moved to Ferrara, Italy in 1438. The dissenting bishops elected the anti-pope Felix V.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·      The Council's major achievement was the establishment of Papal authority over the conciliar authority.

·      In this Council, Pope Eugen IV with the Council proclaimed the dogma: ‘No salvation for anyone outside the Church, hence, the Papal Bull, Cantate Domino.

Eighteenth Council – The Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17)

·       Held in Lateran – Rome

·       Convened by Pope Julius II.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council was set to address the scandals engendered in the Church by previous pontiffs, such as Borgia, and Pope Alexander VI (accused of libertinism and nepotism). However, Pope Julius did not live to follow it through. Pope Leo X continued from where he stopped.

·       The Council was preoccupied with the teachings of sorts like Martin Luther and many others who were rebelling against the Church. This period saw a growing number of Protestants and their reforming agenda.

Nineteenth Council – The Council of Trent (1545-63)

·       Held in Trent – a mountain village in Northern Italy

·       Convened by Pope Paul III on December 13, 1545, but went on under five different Popes: Julius III, Marcellus II, Paul IV, and Pius IV.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council was noted as the longest and greatest in terms of time and achievements, such as the commission of Trent, reforming the Roman Missal, writing of the Catechism of Trent, a commission editing the Latin Vulgate Bible, dogmatic degree on the Holy Eucharist, the Holy Mass, and the sacraments.

·       The Council was regarded as a Counter-Reformation to the Protestant Reformation. It condemned as anathema Protestantism, Martin Luther and other reformers who had left the Church. The Council rededicate itself to holding dear the Truths and Traditions of the Church as a Sacred Deposit of the Faith.

Twentieth Council – The First Vatican Council (1869-70)

·       Held in Vatican City – Rome

·       Convened by Pope Pius IX. In attendance were 803 of the Church’s hierarchy from all over the world.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council reaffirmed the details of the Council of Trent and the dogma of the Infallibility of the Pope.

Twenty-First Council – The Second Vatican Council (1962-65)

·       Held in Vatican City – Rome

·       Convened by Pope John XXIII. Carried on by Pope Paul VI.

Reason for the Council and Outcomes

·       The Council’s main objectives were the challenges of the Modern World and the role of the Church. Hence, many documents came out of the Council attempting to address them.

·       The Council’s own words are pieced together in the documents of the Second Vatican Council: Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, on the Means of Social Communication, On the Church, On the Catholic Churches of the Eastern rite, On Ecumenism, Concerning the Pastoral Office of the Bishops, On renewal of religious life, On priestly training, On Christian Education, On the relation of the Church to non-Christian religions, on Divine Revelation, On the Apostolate of the Laity, On religious freedom, on the mission activity of the Church, on the ministry and life of priests, and on the Church in the Modern World.  

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